Black

Black is the perception of the absence of light. In physics, a black body is an idealized object that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of incidence. The term "black body" was introduced by Gustav Kirchhoff in 1860, and its radiation spectrum is described by Planck's law.¹ Real materials approximate black bodies; for instance, Vantablack, developed by Surrey NanoSystems in 2014, is a vertically aligned carbon nanotube array that absorbs 99.965% of visible light, making it the darkest man-made substance.

In color theory, black is an achromatic color, meaning it has no hue. In the RYB color model, black is produced by mixing all three primary colors; in the CMYK color model, it is a key color (K) used to add depth and contrast. In the additive RGB model, black is the absence of red, green, and blue light (0,0,0).

Perceptually, black is the darkest possible color, with a luminance of zero. However, the perception of black can be influenced by context; simultaneous contrast can make a gray patch appear black when surrounded by a lighter field.²

The word "black" comes from Old English "blæc," which originally meant "burnt" or "sooty." In many languages, the term for black is related to fire or burning, such as Latin "niger" (from which "negro" derives) and Greek "melas."³

Black pigments have been used since prehistoric times. Charcoal and soot were among the first pigments, found in cave paintings such as those in Lascaux, France, dating back 17,000 years. The ancient Egyptians used black for hair and skin tones in art, and it symbolized fertility and life due to the black silt of the Nile.⁴

In the Middle Ages, black became associated with mourning and humility, but also with power and authority. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century made black ink (carbon black) ubiquitous. In the 20th century, black became a staple of fashion, epitomized by Coco Chanel's "little black dress" in 1926.⁵

Black carries a wide range of symbolic meanings across cultures. In Western cultures, it is often associated with death, mourning, evil, and mystery, but also with elegance, formality, and sophistication. In many Asian cultures, black is associated with water, the north, and winter, and in Chinese opera, black face paint denotes a righteous and fierce character.

In politics, black is used by anarchists (black flag) and fascists (blackshirts). In religion, black is worn by clergy in many Christian denominations, and it is the color of the Kaaba in Mecca, a symbol of unity for Muslims.⁶

In the 20th century, black became a symbol of resistance and identity, particularly in the civil rights movement and the Black Power movement. The term "Black" itself has been reclaimed as a positive identity marker, as seen in "Black is beautiful" (1960s).⁷

Black is used extensively in technology. Carbon black is a common pigment and reinforcing filler in tires, plastics, and inks. It is produced by incomplete combustion of heavy petroleum products.⁸

Black coatings are used in optical instruments to reduce stray light. For example, telescope interiors are painted with black paint to minimize reflections. Vantablack and similar super-black materials are used in space applications, such as star trackers and baffles, to improve sensitivity.

In electronics, black is the standard color for many components, and black boxes (flight recorders) are actually orange for visibility, but the term "black box" refers to their function being opaque to users.⁹

Black has several niche and surprising aspects. The blackest bird is the male standard-winged nightjar, whose plumage has been measured to absorb up to 99.95% of light, rivaling Vantablack. The blackest fish, the fangtooth, has skin that absorbs light to avoid detection.

In heraldry, black is called "sable," and it represents constancy and wisdom. In the Middle Ages, black was the color of the Benedictine monks, but it was also associated with alchemy, where the "nigredo" stage was the first step in creating the philosopher's stone.¹⁰

Black is also a color in the CIE 1931 color space, but it is not a spectral color; it is an extra-spectral color. The first synthetic black pigment was carbon black, but there are also black pigments like Mars black (iron oxide) and ivory black (from burnt bones).

In the 19th century, "black" was used to describe a type of tea, and "black" coffee means without milk. The term "black market" originated during World War I to describe illegal trading.¹¹

Black has also been used in art movements: Kazimir Malevich's "Black Square" (1915) is a seminal work of suprematism, and Pierre Soulages developed "outrenoir" (beyond black) in the 20th century, using black as a reflective surface.¹²

Achromatic

A color without hue, such as black, white, or gray.

Black body

An idealized object that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation.

Carbon black

A form of amorphous carbon used as a pigment and reinforcing agent.

Vantablack

A super-black coating made of carbon nanotubes, absorbing up to 99.965% of visible light.

Nigredo

In alchemy, the initial blackening stage of the magnum opus.